Transactional And Transformational Leadership

Transactional And Transformational Leadership Max Weber was the pioneer in developing theory of transactional and transformational leadership, but the theory was further explored by James MacGregor Burns (1978) to Bernard Bass (1985). According to Kuhnert and Lewis (1987), this theory is to explain how personality differences in leaders lead to either transactional or transformational leadership styles (Kuhnert Lewis, 1987). According to Burns (1978) as cited by Kuhnert and Lewis (1987), transactional leadership occurs when one takes the initiatives in making contacts with others for exchanging something valued. Whereas transformational leadership occurs when one focuses the needs, the beliefs, and the values of followers. According to Yukl (1981) as cited by Kuhnert and Lewis (1987), transactional leadership involves exchange of information between superior and subordinates and influences each other reciprocally so that each derives something valued. In other words, it is a win-win situation for both superior and subordinates in getting something they valued. Kellerrmen (1984) as cited by Kuhnert and Lewis (1987) claimed that both the transactional leaders and followers engage in mutual dependence in which the contributions of both sides are acknowledged and rewarded. However, leaders are still influential in making decision and the range is in the best interest of the followers. To be an effective transactional leader, they must regularly fulfill the needs and expectation of their followers. Thus an effective transactional leader is able to respond to the reactions and meet the expectation of their followers (Kellermen, 1984) in (Kuhnert Lewis, 1987). Although transactional leadership is described as exchanging valued outcomes, some literature review suggested that not all exchanges are equal. Graen et al. (1982) in Kuhnert and Lewis (1987) studied the impact on both high-quality and low-quality exchange relationship had on turnover rate of employees in an organization. The result of the study is that employees who engage in exchanging emotional support and resources (high-quality) were less likely to leave an organization compared to employees who engage in exchanging contractually agreed upon elements such as eight hours schedule per day (low-quality). Graen et al. (1982) suggested low-quality exchanges are based on goods or rights. In contrast, high-quality exchanges are based on interpersonal bond between leaders and followers. However in these exchanges, transactional leaders have to clarify the roles and task requirements followers must complete in order to reach to their personal goals and in the same time fulfill the missi on of the organization (Kuhnert Lewis, 1987). Kuhnert and Lewis (1987) also indicated that transformational leadership originates the personal values and beliefs of leaders, not involving any exchange of commodities between leaders and followers. Both Bass (1985) and Burns (1978) as cited by Kuhnert and Lewis (1987) stated that transformational leaders demonstrate their deeply held personal value systems that include such values as justice and integrity. Burns (1978) refers these values were not exchangeable or negotiated between individuals. By expressing their values and specific standards, transformational leaders are able to unite followers and change followers goals and beliefs thus achieve organizational goals. This form of leadership results in higher achievement of performance among individuals (Bass, 1985) in (Kuhnert Lewis, 1987). Kuhnert and Lewis (1987) stated that transformational leaders gain their influence by displaying important personal characteristics. These personal characteristics in a leader were described by Bass (1985); some of them are intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, and level of charisma. According to Dionne et al. (2003) in Ismail et al. (2011), intellectual stimulation is viewed as a leader who cares about intelligence, rationality, logic and careful problem solving in an organization. Leaders stimulate followers to re-examine ways of doing things, use of rational thinking before taking actions. In addition, individualized consideration is viewed as leaders concern about their followers needs. Leaders encourage followers reach to their full potential through proper coaching and mentoring and link followers need to the organizational strategy and goals (Ismail et al., 2011). Thus, successful transformational leaders are able to articulate goals, build an image, demonstrate confidence and inspire followers. These behaviors can convince and motivate followers without exchanging for goods or rights, which characterizes transactional leaders (Kuhnert Lewis, 1987). 5.2 Interactions between Transactional and Transformational Leadership According to Hamilton (2010), Bass (1985) proposed that: there are situations in which the transformational approach may not be appropriate, [and that] organizations need to draw more on the resources of charismatic leaders, who often can induce followers to aspire to and maintain much higher levels of productivity than they would have reached if they had been operating only through the transactional process (Bass, 1985, p. 40) in (Hamilton, 2010). Bass (1999) also indicated that there are plenty of works needed to be done in order to have confidence in full range of transactional and transformational leadership (Bass, 1985, p. 10) in (Hamilton, 2010). To show how transformational leadership and transactional leadership interact with one another, a research has been conducted by Corrigan and Garman (1999) as cited by Hamilton (2010). This study was about how the two (transactional and transformational leadership) interact within the realm of team leadership. Researchers explored how transformational and transactional leadership skills are needed to develop team cohesion. In this study, team leaders needed to have transformational skills: inspiration and charisma, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration (Corrigan et al., 1999, p. 304) in (Hamilton, 2010) that allowed them to inspire team members and help the team move forward with creative problem solving. This motivational need and focus requires the leaders to not only exhibit transformational skills but transactional skills. In making transactions, the leaders had three goals which are clarifying expectations, motivating improvement, and recognizing achievement s (Corrigan et al., 1999, p. 308) in (Hamilton, 2010). Transactional skills are needed to help maintain effective programs. The interaction between transactional and transformational skills were valuable for leaders in which they utilized skills, which allowed them to meet both present and future needs of team members and organization (Hamilton, 2010). It was concluded that a manager can be both transformational and transactional leader depending on various situations. It results in more effective leadership behaviour of leaders in an organization (Hamilton, 2010). 5.3 Transformational and Transactional Leadership on Organizational Commitment 5.3.1 Employee Attitude and Customer Satisfaction Mowday et al. (1979) as cited by Emery et al. (2007) found that organizational commitment reflects employees identification and involvement. To be more specific, it holds three dimensions: a strong belief in and acceptance of organizations goals and values; a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization; and a strong desire to maintain membership in an organization (Mowday et al., 1979) in (Emery et al., 2007). According to Emery et al. (2007), there are several findings indicated there are positive relationship between a persons willingness to participate in quality improvement efforts and organizational commitment. Morris (1995) in Emery et al. (2007) found that employee job satisfaction is one of the critical factors in delivering satisfaction to customers. In addition, it also concluded that employee job satisfaction comes from: the job itself, supervisor relationship, management beliefs, future opportunity, works environment, pay/ benefits/ rewards, and co-worker relationships (Morris, 1995) in (Emery et al., 2007). Another study of retail banking industry, Brown and Mitchell (1993) in Emery et al. (2007) found that job dissatisfaction of customer contact personnel was positively correlated with lower customer satisfaction. In addition, there is a similar research has been conducted by Atkins et al. (1996) in Emery et al. (2007), authors examined level of customer satisfaction by nurses services at a major Midwestern hospital, the correlation between nurses job satisfaction and patients recommendation of which units they preferred was .85 (Atkins et al., 1996) in (Emery et al., 2007). 5.3.2 The correlation between Leaderships and Organizational Commitment According to the research done by Emery et al. (2007), the purpose of this study is to examine the connection between transactional and transformational leadership and job satisfaction and employee commitment. The results indicated that transformational leadership was found to have higher correlation with job satisfaction and employee commitment compared to transactional leadership. Bass (1985) as cited by Emery et al. (2007) indicated that transformational leaders are likely to find more acceptances in an organization, where receptivity to change and a propensity for risk taking are available. However, leaders who question the status quo of an organization which bound by tradition, rules and sanctions may be viewed as too unsettling or anxious thus perceived as inappropriate. Thus, open to creative suggestion, innovation and risk taking may be more conducive to transformational leadership compared to challenge the status quo of an organization (Emery et al., 2007). Bass (1985) suggested that transactional leadership are preferred over in service sectors such as banking sector. However, Emery et al. (2007) found that the employees in banking sectors preferred transformational leadership. It could be explained that the system of reinforcement in mechanistic organization is so thoroughly entrenched in the organizational structures, which leaders do not need to provide contingent reinforcement. Emery et al. (2007) found that charisma is preferred beyond contingent-reward behaviour in relation to leader effectiveness. These findings are consistent with other researches done by Hater and Bass (1988) and Waldmen et al. (1987) as cited by Emery et al. (2007) where it had demonstrated the importance of charismatic leadership in level of organizational commitment. However, Emery et al. (2007) failed to support that the charisma is only important at the highest management levels. It is due to lower-level managers somehow comply with the decisions of the higher-level charismatic leaders by receiving contingent rewards. Another finding by Emery et al. (2007) indicated that there are no gender differences in terms of magnitude and preference of particular leadership styles. Female managers are equally display transformational style as males, both males and females managers exhibit similar level of charisma, intellectual stimulation and individual consideration. This study by Emery et al. (2007) supports the use of transformational leadership to increase job satisfaction and organizational commitment of customer contact personnel. These findings become more significant as service corporations attempt to empower their employees and strive to retain customers through relationship strategies. Another evidence is that result indicated that transformational leadership and particularly charismatic is preferred by employees although they received low paid in an organization. According to Emery et al. (2007), employees place a great deal of trust in their leaders judgment; they adopt leaders values and form strong emotional ties to the leader. Leaders personal characteristics are directly support the dimension of service quality (Parasuraman et al., 1988) in (Emery et al., 2007). According to Bass (1994; 1999), Howell and Avolio (1993) and Ismail et al. (2010) as cited by Ismail et al. (2011), since it is an era of global competition, many organizations shift the paradigms of their leadership styles from transactional to transformational leadership as a way to achieve their strategies and goals. Transformational leaders are effective leaders that develop their followers full potential, higher needs and motivate them to unite, link their goals to organizational goals and beliefs (Ismail et al., 2011).

Compare and Contrast Thomas Kuhn and Karl Popper

Compare and Contrast Thomas Kuhn and Karl Popper Positivists regarded empirical observation freed of preconceptions as the means by which facts were obtained and explained. This view, however, has been greatly contested since the Vienna Circles avid pursuance of it. The main problems include its inability to be checked and criticised by the scientific community members. In other words, they are subjective, fallible and thus unreliable.  [1]  It is this initial discontent with positivism, especially with logical positivism which prompted Karl Popper to develop his Theory of Falsifiability, a theory which no longer relies on induction but on deduction, which accepts that truth is not attainable and which casts theories aside which have been refuted by only a single piece of empirical evidence. Falsification is also a demarcation between science and non-science, something which has proved to be very controversial. Thomas Kuhn, perhaps the most well known critic of Poppers work, does not believe in induction or deduction as methods through which science progresses. Instead, he introduces the concept of normal science, revolutionary science and paradigms. The differences between these two mens work will be analysed, the implications of each for the conduct of social sciences commented upon and the work of Imre Lakatos, a twentieth century philosopher of mathematics and science, highlighted in order to illustrate just how much both philosophers resonate in the social sciences as a whole. Karl Popper, Positivism and his Theory of Falsifiability Karl Popper was first and foremost a philosopher of the natural sciences,  [2]  his knowledge of the social sciences being limited basically to economics.  [3]  With that in mind, one understands why he agreed with Rudolph Carnap in advocating that philosophy should learn from how the natural sciences operate. He believed scientists should adopt a critical attitude, willing to incessantly test their views with empirical evidence and rational discussion which the Vienna Circle had so avidly promoted. However, Popper was soon to highlight flaws with positivism, especially with logical positivism. These were, in particular, its dedication to the principles of inductivism and verificationism. Inductivists claim that via induction, one is able to obtain secure scientific knowledge and that the inference is legitimate if a significant number of singular or observational statements are gathered under a wide variety of circumstances.  [4]  In order to maintain the empirical certainty of inferences obtained through the deductive method, the universal law premise must be empirically certain.  [5]  However, as Popper pointed out, one has no assurance that any universal empirical proposition is certain. For Popper, the problem of induction was insurmountable, contesting that if science is empirical its [] laws must be treated as tentative hypotheses.  [6]   Popper accepted the Humean critique of induction, claiming not only that it is never used by scientists but that observation, believed to be an initial step in the formulation of theories, is misguided  [7]  . Hume also pointed out that observation is selective and theory-laden and thus one can never make pure or free observations.  [8]  Popper, however, disagreed with Hume over whether knowledge could be rationally justified. Hume saw inductively inferred laws as merely an account of habit or custom, (suggesting that) even scientific knowledge is irrational.  [9]  Popper, on the other hand, in order to avoid statements allowing empirical evidence to confirm false theories, believed that induction could be replaced by deduction. Deduction draws inferences about the premises from the observed falsity of the conclusion.  [10]  To justify this, he argued that though even with a body of empirical evidence, one can never be absolutely certain about the validity of a theory , it takes only one empirical rebuttal to determine the falsity of a theory. Popper denominated this the asymmetry between verifiability and falsifiability  [11]  , a difference which became the centrepiece of his philosophy of science. Scientists begin with universal statements and initial conditions from which they deduce hypotheses which will then be subsequently tested. If they withstand the test, the theory will survive; if falsified, the theory is abandoned. Falsifiability, according to Popper, is the criterion of demarcation between science, or the empirical sciences and the non-science. There are, however, degrees of falsifiability. The more information a statement contains, the larger its body of observational statements and therefore, the higher its degree of falsification. According to Popper, scientists should aim at highly refutable theories instead of modestly falsifiable ones. It is preferable for the theory to be bold, precise and simple  [12]  as their empirical content will be greater and therefore there will be a larger body of potential falsifiers. Poppers definite break with logical positivism appears in their search of certainty: the positivists aimed to specify methods that would generate certain knowledge  [13]  whilst in Poppers view, one can only hope to improve what must always remain imperfect  [14]  as future tests could cast doubt over what was previously thought of as true. If we take Poppers approach to the search for truth, it would initially appear that there are an endless number of possible true theories.  [15]  However, Popper addresses that by explaining his notion of verisimilitude. The scientific process of trial and error which Popper advocates creates a greater approximation of the truth, or increases the verisimilitude of the theory. Popper, Marxism and Pseudo-Science The young Popper had been attracted to the apparent strength of theories such as Freuds psychoanalysis and Adlers individual psychology. These theories were regarded as capable of explaining virtually everything related to human behaviour as verifications were found to justify every advancement. Popper, however, was soon to discover a major flaw in them: they could not be refuted. Freud was therefore severely criticised by Popper for producing immunised theories against falsification. A theory unable to be falsified belongs, in Poppers view, to a non-science. His drastic approach towards pseudo-science was also extended to Marxism, especially the Marxism that Neurath had brought to the Vienna Circle. Neurath interpreted Marxian materialism as epsitemically equivalent to his own physicalism  [16]  and hailed Engels and Marx as having produced the foundations of a truly scientific study of society. In Poppers opinion, this could not have been further from the truth. The problem with Marx was not only that he was considered a historicist, but that he was a utopian too. Marxism, initially considered as a science because of its predictive nature, was soon re-classified as fundamentally non-scientific. The predictions Marx had made had not been borne out and in order to save it from falsification and refutation, ad hoc hypotheses were added, making the theory compatible with facts. These factors prompted Popper to adopt falsifiability as his criterion for demarcation between science and non-science. If a theory, according to Popper, is capable of being falsified or, in other words, is incompatible with empirical evidence, it is considered as scientific. If, on the other hand, a theory is compatible with all observations and is capable of explaining virtually everything be it because, as with the case of Marxism, it has been modified to accommodate newly made observations or, because, as in the case of psychoanalysis, it is indeed consistent with all observations made and to be made in the future, it is categorised as unscientific.  [17]  It is thi s criterion which characterises Poppers theory of falsifiability and which was soon criticised. Implications for the Social Sciences Popper helps demolish one of the notions positivism embraces, namely that science progresses from the observation of data by means of experiments. These experiments are verified when repeated allowing general laws about the nature of reality to be inferred. Popper, therefore, shows that progress is made not by verifying facts, but by attempts of falsifying the results of other theories.  [18]  The theories of science, he argues, are conjectures to solve problems and cannot be verified by empirical evidence.  [19]  The switch from induction to deduction also means that rather than proceeding from the particular to the universal, science originates from the universal (i.e. scientific hypotheses) to the particular.  [20]   Sander Thomas Kuhns Theory of Paradigms Thomas Kuhn began his career as a physicist and then turned his attention towards the history of science where his preconceptions about natural history were shattered  [21]  . His Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) was developed as an attempt to give a theory more in keeping with the historical situation as (Kuhn) saw it  [22]  . Unlike Popper, his main aim was not to provide guidelines to scientists about how to proceed or to develop a normative philosophy of science. The central concern of his thesis was to characterise the way in which science historically develops and to explain why scientists have operated in such a way. Kuhns Structure of Scientific Revolutions has been one of the most provocative (pieces of work) to appear in the last fifteen years  [23]  , offering the most sophisticated alternative to Popper.  [24]  Science, in his opinion, does not progress inductively as positivists would maintain nor by falsification as Popper would argue. Alternatively, Kuhn places focus on the revolutionary character of scientific process, where a revolution involves the abandonment of one theoretical structure and its replacement by another, incompatible one. Kuhns approach to the way science progresses can be summarised by the following open-ended scheme: pre-science normal science crisis revolution new normal science new crisis  [25]   According to Kuhn, the pre-science stage is a disorganised and diverse activity preceding the formation of science. It eventually becomes structured, directed and channelled when a single paradigm emerges and is adhered to by the scientific community. As will be discussed below, the concept of paradigms itself has been subjected to heavy criticism, not least because of its ambiguous nature. However, vaguely, one can postulate that paradigms contain some very general methodological prescriptions  [26]  to guide scientific work. Paradigms also serve a regulative function in directing future research.  [27]  Workers within a specific paradigm whether it be Newtonian mechanics or wave optics practise what Kuhn denominates normal science. As professed in Structure of Scientific Revolutions, normal science is: research firmly based upon one or more past scientific achievements that some particular scientific community acknowledges for a time as supplying the foundation for its further practice.  [28]   Normal science is inextricably characterised by a dominant paradigm, something that Popper quickly picked up upon as irrational and superficial.  [29]  In normal science the scientists work is devoted to the articulation and wider application of the accepted paradigm.  [30]  In other words, their main aim is to fill out what is suggested by the accepted paradigm.  [31]  It is therefore clear that little emphasis is placed upon normal science and research to produce major novelties as a primary aim. Kuhn, in effect, reduces Poppers falsification theory to problem solving within the confines of normal science. According to Kuhn, science is merely a set of puzzles whose solutions are to be found within the operating paradigm  [32]  . Normal scientists do not actively look for anomalies which the content of their paradigm will be hard-pressed to solve. However, when a recurrent anomaly does arise which the paradigm is unable to resolve, crisis will break out. During such a crisis, extraordinary science occurs characterised by a plurality of views and a challenge to the fundamentals of the paradigm. The crisis will then be resolved when a completely new paradigm emerges which has the capacity to resolve the previous, problematic anomalies and, in doing so, attract the allegiance of a growing scientific community until eventually the paradigm posing the problem is abandoned. Therefore, the new paradigm not only has to be able to resolve the anomaly, it also has to be subsequently accepted as normal science, thus establishing a new consensus. A scientific revolution according to Kuhn is constituted by discontinuous change  [33]  as the newly adopted paradigm will be confronted with problems it is unable to resolve and thus the never-ending cycle continues. Kuhn and Popper The Structure of Scientific Revolutions soon became problematic to reconcile with Poppers theory of falsification as Kuhns historical account about how scientists operate came into conflict with Poppers work. The emphasis Kuhn placed on scientific communities, their rules and expectations, was used to explain why scientists were not always willing to refute and actively search for falsifications of their theories. Unlike what Popper claimed, the scientific communities would not question the paradigm they work within until a particular anomaly was repeated. Instead, they might question their own calculations or instruments implemented, but never the broader framework they operate within.  [34]   Poppers reaction to Kuhns severe criticism was veritably weak. He simple asserted that Kuhns accurate historical account of science clashes with the facts as I see them.  [35]  According to Kuhn, falsification has not been in use in the past for the reasons highlighted above. Poppers rebuttal to this was that he, unlike Kuhn, had not focused on providing a historical account but on providing guidelines for future scientists. He also criticises Kuhn for producing a highly selected theory, one which disregarded large chunks of normal science.   [36]   Popper also criticised Kuhn for paving the way for irrationalism and relativism,  [37]  the reason for this lying in two of Kuhns statements. Firstly, the fact that Kuhn equated the switch in paradigms to a gestalt switch or a religious conversion because he believed in a holistic theory of meaning  [38]  means that it is very difficult to compare scientific theories. Secondly, because of Kuhns cynical approach to verisimilitude and his belief that we never get closer to the truth, his explanation on how science progresses seems ill-founded. In these contexts, Popper criticises Kuhn of adhering to the myth of framework which presupposes that rational and critical discussions can only take place if fundamentals are agreed upon. Popper strongly disagrees with this concept, as with the belief that science will not progress across paradigms and argues that different frameworks always have enough in common to allow the scientific community to compare and judge them, triggering pro gress. Other Criticisms of Kuhns Work Popper has not been alone in criticising aspects of Kuhns Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Bernstein succinctly puts the majority of the criticisms in his The Restructuring of Social and Political Theories  [39]  . The ambiguous nature of paradigms and the irrationality of the paradigm shift have been discussed above. Critics have also pinpointed Kuhns misrepresentation of the history of science  [40]  , the inaccurate description of normal science  [41]  and the exaggerated distinction between normal and revolutionary science  [42]  . In order to further show the relevance of Kuhns work to the social sciences, the vagueness of paradigms will be discussed, as the irrationality of paradigms has been explained above. When first introduced, Kuhn claimed paradigms were universally recognised scientific achievements that for a time provide model problems and solutions to a community of practitioners.  [43]  However, the elusive and slippery concept  [44]  of paradigm was shown when Kuhn acknowledges that he had been using the term paradigm in many ways  [45]  , citing Masterman who listed at least twenty two senses in which the term was used in the book.  [46]  To tackle the confusion created by his multiple use of paradigms, Kuhn proposes to replace it with a disciplinary matrix.  [47]  A disciplinary matrix includes the shared commitments of the community of scholars, the shared symbolic generalizations and [] the shared problems and solutions in the discipline.  [48]   Mark? Other Implications for Social Scientists. Even though Thomas Kuhn has been almost exclusively concerned with the natural sciences, social scientists have repeatedly claimed his work offers fresh illumination for understanding social sciences and theory.  [49]  Part of the reason for this is, as Kuhn himself pointed out, the fact that his work is regretfully [] too nearly all things to all people.  [50]   The revolutionary transformation in the use of observation as a means leading to theory has also had an impact on social scientists. Kuhns starting point for the formulation of theories is not reality but construction.  [51]  Kuhn contributed to demolishing [] positivism  [52]  not only by admitting revolutions in science involve the intrusion of non-scientific elements such as habits, customs or cultural values, but also in casting doubt over the possibility of attaining perfect knowledge and over the established idea that progress in science is cumulative. One of the most important consequences Kuhns work had for the social sciences was the significance he attributed to the role played by the sociological characteristics of scientific communities. Kuhn turned away from the search for an ideal methodology to the study of science by scientific means and, in doing so, invigorated the empirical study of science.  [53]  Finally, Kuhn may have hastened the demise of positivism by prompting and then influencing the naturalisation of epistemology, a movement which has become prominent through, for example, a conventionalistic and naturalistic study of science. Imre Lakatos: A Middle Man? By the late 1960s a great deal of the debate on the philosophy of science had come to focus on the difference between Kuhns paradigms and Poppers revision of positivism. Numerous epistemic doctrines entered this debate and different interpretations of Popper and Kuhns works emerged, reflecting the impact they had on their contemporary critics and their effect on the conduct of social science as a whole. Lakatos is one of the most prominent critics of their works, his critique generally considered as the most important attempt to place the post-empiricist theory of science somewhere between Popper and Kuhn.  [54]   Imre Lakatos at the outset appears to be a supporter of Poppers falsification theory. He strongly criticised Kuhn for his irrationalist and too general  [55]  concept of a revolution and his notion of a single, dominating paradigm. Lakatos defends Popper against the charge of naive falsificationism, the immediate discarding of a theory as soon as contradictory evidence is exposed. However, he goes beyond Popper in claiming that science progresses by sophisticated falsification which focuses on the comparative evaluation of whole research programs.  [56]   Sophisticated falsificationists realise that the conditions that a hypothesis should satisfy in order to be worthy of a scientists consideration [] alone are insufficient  [57]  and that the need for a hypothesis to be more falsifiable than the other it will replace is necessary for scientific progress. Thus, it is not single theories which are falsified but entire programs, embodying the notion of refutation [] not automatically lead(ing) to rejection.  [58]  Such an epistemic theory strikingly resembles Kuhns theory of paradigms. The difference between them only appears when closely examining Lakatos notion of research programs. According to Lakatos, every scientific research program has a hard core, a set of propositions that are immune from empirical tests  [59]  because they are surrounded by a protective belt of assumptions or conditions.  [60]  Though research programs and paradigms have been equated, Lakatos proposes that normal science be considered more as a research program for reasons of its general acceptability  [61]  and does not attribute the general status to it that Kuhnian paradigms have. Furthermore, the transition from one research program to another is the product of rational exploration of rival methodologies  [62]  and not, as Kuhn implied, a mystical conversion  [63]  to a new ontology. Cultural values, historical events and other external factors are far less important in Lakatos eyes and play little part in particular scientific theories or the choice of general research programs, levelling Kuhns theory down to critical rationalism.  [64]   Lakatos MSRP has not emerged without enticing criticisms. Firstly, he seems to have physics exclusively in mind when he developed his theory and when referring to science. Other natural sciences cannot as easily be accommodated to the Procrustean bed of the MSRP  [65]  and it is only economics which seems to offer the possibility of an easy fit.  [66]  As a model for the history of science, MSRP fails to meet the empirical test of general acceptability  [67]  . It is also limited in explaining how science works, failing to formulate the criteria needed to be employed for it to work. However, as Gordon highlights, the fact that Lakatos was flexible in not regarding former scientists as misguided in adopting theories that now would be considered irrational is a significant point of merit in Lakatos epistemic stance.  [68]  The MSRP model allows the possibility of gaining knowledge by using theories that are subsequently regarded as, in the absolute sense, false.  [69]    Conclusion As Lakatos claimed, The clash between Popper and Kuhn is not about a mere technical point in epistemology. It concerns our central intellectual values, and has implications not only for theoretical physics but also for the underdeveloped social sciences and even moral and political philosophy.  [70]   As seen with Sanders account, Popper has greatly influenced the political sciences, contributing to xxxx. Kuhns work, on the other hand, as Mark Smith rightly points out, has had a deep impact on the conduct of social sciences because of the vagueness and therefore adaptability of the term paradigms.  [71]  Despite their distinct approaches, however, both men have met with severe criticism, not only from each other, but from scientific colleagues and both have apparently failed to address these adequately.  [72]  It is therefore not surprising that xxxxxx

A Comparison of Everyman and Christopher Marlowes Doctor Faustus Essay

A Comparison of "Everyman" and Christopher Marlowe's "Doctor Faustus" Everyman and Doctor Faustus are both Morality Plays, these are specifically plays that existed within the Medieval period. They were popular during this period as they were intended to instruct the audience in the Christian way and attitudes to life. The morality play is essentially an allegory written in dramatic form. In the fourteenth Century, morality plays were mainly based on the seven deadly sins as in everyman with each character representing each sin. Everyman centers around allegory. It focuses on the allegorical representations of moral issues with the inclusion of figures that represent abstractions of the issues that are confronted. Doctor Faustus follows the general five-act structure of an Elizabethan Romantic Tragedy. However Christopher Marlowe used the structure of an older Medieval form of English Drama, the morality play as a model. Morality plays tended to show the moral struggle of mans soul and the conflict of good and evil. This is evident in the play of Doctor Faustus who is embroiled in a battle between the temptation of the devil and God. You could argue that Doctor Faustus is not classed as a morality play. Because in the tradition of a morality play God and the devil are external forces that affect the individual. However, in Doctor Faustus it is far more of an internal drama inside Faustus? own mind. Both are entirely didactic in nature, they were made with the intent to educate their audience in one respect or another. There was a moral to each that conveyed similar messages. Therefore the term ?morality play? correctly defines each one. The medieval time period in which Everyman was written contained a society that r... ...the rejection of the medieval due to further emphasis on the individual rather than God. After all, the opening scene of Doctor Faustus was praising science and magic in favour of God. So where do we draw the line? Everyman statically reflects the period of medieval whereas Doctor Faustus focuses on the actual change in that particular period of the Reformation. Therefore it is possible to see the alteration from one period to another. Bibliography - ?Doctor Faustus?-Christopher Marlowe - ?Norton Anthology of English Literature? - Oxford Dictionary Online - ?LION?- - http://lion.chadwyck.co.uk - http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Texts/faustus.html (3/12/03) - http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/doctorfaustus/ (5/12/03) - http://www.miracleplayers.org/everyman/play.htm (15/12/03) - http://www.luminarium.org/medlit/intro.htm (17/12/03)

Robert Brownings My Last Duchess Character Analysis :: Robert Browning, Poems, Poetry, Prose

MurderÂ…mysteryÂ…intrigueÂ…All describe Robert Browning's poem, "My Last Duchess." From the speakers indirect allusions to the death of his wife the reader might easily think that the speaker is a bit crazy and committed a vengeful crime out of jealousy. His flowery speech confuses and disguises any possible motives; however, the mystery is left unsolved. Based on the poem's style and structure, it becomes evident that even if the speaker did not directly kill his wife, he certainly had something to hide. This poem is about a powerful Duke, and his beautiful, flirtatious wife who has two different personalities, one that was reality and the other was the lady in the painting. The duke comes off as being very possessive. "Never to stoop. Oh sir, she smiled, no doubt,/ Whene'er I passed her; but who passed without/ much the same smile?" (43-45). I believe this being said, the duke is over examining things, the smile can simply come off as simply being a nice person, but to duke sees it in a different light. He views it as being flirtatious. The poem begins and ends with him mourning the loss of his deceased Duchess, but from the way that the mighty Duke speaks, he knows more about her death than he leads us to believe. The Duke chooses his word very carefully, when he talks to his friend about the painting of his wife. He only drops small hints, to his friend about the death of his Duchess. "I gave commands/ then all smiles stopped together" (45-46). These lines mean that the Duke, playing a very dominant part, tells his wife to stop smiling and flirting. Being told this, she still continues on, which I believe she does not notice or see herself as being flirtatious. As a result I believe that the Duke killed his wife, or had someone to put her to her death. As the Duke speaks of his Duchess, in the beginning, he sounds extremely compassionate and caring towards her. The Duke had an absolute love for his Duchess as most husbands and wives do. He sounded so proud of her and the beauty that she posed: almost like she was a trophy. Despite all of the pride and excitement that he showed towards her, there was an element of distrust that lingered inside of his mind.

Hanging Woman Creek :: essays research papers

Hanging Woman Creek is set in an era of American expansion when the major conflict of the Indian population was not much of a worry. The bigger worry for most men on the frontier was other whites. Bandits were plentiful, and the law was dealt out by the people. The book starts out in Chicago, concerning a man who had just been released from an overnight stay in prison. This man is called Pike, and has a reputation for being a fighter. His reputation is not that well however, because it seems that he loses more fights than he wins. He is sitting with an African-American man and another man by a fire, Eddie and Van. He quickly became friends with Eddie, and realized that Van was more trouble than he was worth. He and Eddie hitched a train to the West, looking for jobs as cowherds. They reach a town on the edge of the frontier that Pike has visited in the past. He finds some friends and one that offers a job. However, this job is not a very safe one. It is to round up some cattle near a n outpost on Hanging Woman Creek and stay there.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Pike and Eddie find much trouble, and one man is shot in the back by an unknown assailant. Pike escorts a lady out to her brother’s homestead, and a while later the lady’s brother’s estate has been burnt down. Bohlen, a local rancher, was suspected of doing it. Ann, the lady that Pike escorted earlier, was at the house. She had escaped however, and was now on the run. Pike caught up to her and they headed back to the town. Along the way Bohlen attacked the group and killed Eddie and Ann’s brother. Pike and Ann made it back to town and Pike got his revenge on Bohlen, but only after he went through a court hearing and the truth came out.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This book was very confusing and disorganized. It was very hard to follow and the author could have done a better job in explaining the plot. Facts were thrown in throughout the story about what was going on, sometimes with no real relevance. The author also stopped often to contemplate the meaning of life from the perspective of Pike. This was distracting, and made the book a very boring read. The book definitely could have used some more organization and a less complicated plot.

Islamic fund structure Essay

Introduction The concept of Islamic fund and banking system is developing over a period of couple of decades now. It could be mentioned that Islamic banking is a different approach to conventional banking and financial institutions. This is because the fundamentals of the Islamic fund, banking and financial specifications that based on the religious norms and regulations. It could also be mentioned that behind the formulation of Islamic banking and financial institutions the major reasons were instrumented by demography, historical and political influences. The major financial instrument of the Islamic funds and banking along with financial institutions could be enumerated as Sukuks. The term Sukuk is an Arabic word that is identical to the aspects of a financial instrument and is an equivalent instrument such as a bond under Islamic perspective of banking. But contrary to the usual financial instrument Sukuk is different as there are no fixed incomes as under the laws of Islam interests are seen as a crime. Therefore as an alternative it has been instrumented to use such non tangible or tangible assets that are could be classified according to the basic non tradability or tradability. But once again, under the principals of Islam these formulations could only be used in the secondary market. According to the estimation of the ‘Islamic Banking and Financial Institutions: The Progress and Probability’ published in 2005, there are around $521 billion worth of financial assets that are circulating in the fiscal market as per year ending March 2005. The entire amount of this investment regulated by principals of Islamic investment plans it could be enumerated that the entire procedure is regulated by the moral and spiritual obligations of the ‘Shari’ah’. Therefore it is seen that the Islamic financials instruments traded on GCC financials markets are huge and there are a number of countries who regularly uses this form of banking. The countries can be enumerated as USA, UK, Yemen, UAE, Turkey, Tunisia, Switzerland, Sudan, Sri Lanka, South Africa, Senegal, Saudi Arabia, Russia, Qatar, Palestine, Pakistan and around 150 countries all over the world. Malaysia is one of the key player of this form of banking. Dallah Al Baraka (Malaysia) Holding Sdn Bhd, Malayan Banking Berhad (Maybank), Kuala Lumpur, Islamic banking & Takaful Dept, Bank Negara Malaysia, United Malayan Banking Corp. Berhad, Kuala Lumpur, Labuan Offshore Financial Services Authority (LOFSA) and Lembaga Urusan Dan Tabung Haji (Fund), Kuala Lumpur are the few most important financial institutions of the country. The financial institutions that that deal with the instruments can be enumerated as International Islamic Financial Markets, Mudaraba Companies, Takaful Companies (These are basically insurance companies), Islamic Mortgage Companies, Islamic Windows, Islamic Investment Funds and Banks and Islamic Banks. Under these institutions there are different plans such as Mudaraba which are basically Capital trust financing where the basic implementation is the contact which accumulates the capital along with the cost. However there are also other schemes that are marked up. Then there are also other plans under which leasing comes into consideration. This called Ijara. There is also another technique that is defined Ijara wa Iktin wa which is basically the contract of hire purchase. The basic limitations of these plans are based on the contracts between the parties but the over all scenarios are based on the principals of Islam where a financial instrument like Musharaka is treated as long termed investment under the parameters of equity arrangement. The capital supplied in this case is the bank and the clients. The profit in this case is shared among the concerned parties in according to prior agreement whereas the loss is shared in accordance to the capital invested. On the other hand another financial instrument like Mudaraba is treated as a financial credit on a short termed basis. Here the capital is supplied by the bank and the investor. The profit in this case is shared among the concerned parties in accordance to the agreed ratio and the loss is bearded by the investor alone. Therefore it could be termed that the advantages and the disadvantages along with the limitations of the market are based on different aspect of the Islamic law but in an over all sense this system is working quite well and the turn over and the volume of the entire formulation seems to develop over time. Further more it can be enumerated that the success of the GCC market is not only based on the religious beliefs but it has its financial values too that enables the uses to enjoy certain notion of tax free up to a limit and it works fine under controlled environment of the finance sector. However, the parameters of Establishing Islamic Fund to issue Islamic Bonds for Infrastructure Projects lies in the feasibility section of the economic aspects that are juxtaposed with social and international image. Aim The focal point of this research proposal is Establishing Islamic Fund to issue Islamic Bonds for Infrastructure Projects. There have been numerous research papers that have discussed other impacts such as financial, social, political and economic impact of Infrastructure Projects. Methodology and literature review in this regard would be carried out in order to evaluate the strategies from different parameters and they will be compared with each other. The strategy evaluation will vary in size, audience and theme. To analyse the strategies and their success and failure realisation, questionnaires will be used to gather key primary data amongst participants. The questionnaire will be used to measure the perception of the participants and the residents of the communities in which these events are being held. Administrators, managers and customers will also be interviewed to determine the results and objectives that were achieved by the implementation of the strategy. Objective The objective of the paper would be specific yet wide spread. Out of the several related itineraries of the paper it would be specifically noted that stress is given towards identifying potential Infrastructure Projects by Islamic Funds analysis of their successes and failures of their strategy. Alongside it would also be formulated to identify Key Consultants within the establishments and their effects as a whole. Market trends and growth would be analyzed closely and evaluated accordingly to estimate the overall potential of the events. It would also be seen that proper emphasis is provided about the research entry barriers to English and international market and how to penetrate. Lastly, the compilations of database of market sector would be made along with proper notes that would identify head of events and its financial fall outs and provide the estimated details. In this context it would be relevant to mention that marketing is one of the most important aspects for a business to grow and from a managerial point of view it is the most involved factor in the aspect of business development. This is a market research and business development along with feasibility project where the research would be able to contribute based on the experience and learns from the process. The objective would be based on the opportunity of primary research on the market and obtain real world information through interfacing directly with the client organization and its customers. Background There are several aspects behind the motion of Establishing Islamic Fund to issue Islamic Bonds for Infrastructure Projects. This should be thoroughly dealt in this section. The insects of racial discrimination, the curse of civilization, are gradually eating up out society, dissolving harmony and affection, transforming human being in weapons of carnage. Thus the society no longer remains a better place to live in. Islamophobe is a contentious neologism distinct by some as a chauvinism in opposition to, or demonization of, Muslims. The expression is documented in use as early as 1976, but came into greater prevalence in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The expression’s use has become greater than before since the September 11, 2001 attacks. It can be mentioned that this is an irrational paranoia that needs to be eradicated from the face of the earth in order to make life a bit peaceful. British authors and intellectuals like Kenan Malik have condemned the perception, calling it an allegory. According to Malik this concept bamboozles prejudice in opposition to Muslims with denigration of Islam, and is applied to silence detractors of the religion, as well as Muslims who intend to reform it. Novelist Salman Rushdie and many others signed a proclamation in March 2006, which deemed Islamophobe a desolate perception that perplexes disapproval of Islam as a religion and stigmatization of those who have faith in it. Danish politician Bashy Quraishy has mentioned that islamophobe and anti-Semitism are two faces of the same coin. In the yrar1996 the Runnymede Trust, an autonomous anti-racist think tank in the United Kingdoms, recognized the assignment on British Muslims and Islamophobe, headed by Professor Gordon Conway, the vice-chancellor of the University of Sussex. According to the report launched in November 1997 by the Home Secretary, Jack Straw, Islamophobe can be considered as a challenge for the society as a whole. It portrayed Islamophobe as concerning eight idiosyncratic characteristics such as Islam is considered as a monolithic bloc, static and insensitive to alterations. It is observed as separate and other. It does not have principles in familiar with other ethnicities, is not pretentious by them and even does not influence them. It is perceived as substandard to the West. It is observed as barbaric, unreasonable, primordial, and sexist. It is seen as brutal, violent, intimidating, encouraging of terrorism, and affianced in a clash of civilizations. It is observed as a political philosophy, designed for political or military benefit. Condemnations made of the West by Islam are discarded out of hand. Antagonism towards Islam is used to give explanation for prejudiced practices in the direction of Muslims and segregation of Muslims from conventional society. Anti-Muslim resentment is seen as usual and normal. In 1997 the British Runnymede Trust made it clear that Islamophobe as the observation that Islam has no ethics in common with other cultures, is substandard to the West, is an aggressive political ideology instead of being a religion, that its disparagement of the West have no essence, and that prejudiced practices against Muslims are justified as such. Despite the fact that Muslims do not comprise a race in isolation, the submission is that many Europeans and North Americans have an inaccurate discernment of Muslims as composing a separate a race, which in he words of Khyati Joshi is radicalization of religion. On the other hand, Muslims may be perplexed with Arabs, even though the mainstream of the world’s Muslims are not Arabs. There are several causes behind Islamophobe the prime among them is to perplex disapproval of Islam as a religion and stigmatization of those who have faith in it. Sociologists have time and again argued that there was a swing in forms of chauvinism in the 1990s from race-based discrimination to inequity based on culture and religion. In 2004, Anja Rudiger, Executive director of the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia, made it clear in an Oxford conference on Muslims in Europe that, ever since the 9/11 attacks, religion had outshined race as the most important focal point of divergence, and that an individual’s religion was now looked upon as one and the same with their background. In the case of Muslims, this showed the way to another dimension of chauvinism, Rudiger argued, in that European Muslims were observed as signifying an amalgamated culture relatively different from European society, one that is strappingly correlated to certain non-European states. From Rudiger’s perspective, such observations are element of the course of action of classifying Islam as Europe’s other. Due to Islamophobe instead of engaging Muslims in debate, non-Muslims are hypothetical to sneak around them, for fear of causing felony. There are several alleged acts of Islamophobia, such as Dr Amanda Wise and Ghali Hassan from GlobalResearch. ca have assumed that the 2005 Cronulla insurrection were the consequence of an atmosphere of Islamophobe in Australia. Dalil Boubakeur, a director of a Paris mosque illustrated the wreckage on a Mosque, referred to the burning of a Muslim Sanctuaries, attacks on hijabi Muslim women all over the world as Islamophobic. Muslim activists alleged that the Forest Gate anti terror raid in London was Islamophobic. France, which has a strong secular institution separating church from State, was accused of Islamophobe when the decree on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools was approved, which prohibits the wearing of conspicuous religious symbols in public schools. In a February 10, 2004 accounted by Al Jazeera the head of the Party of France’s Muslims, Muhammad Latreche in analysing the French decree on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools was referenced as mentioning that the legislation would, institutionalise Islamophobe. In Germany, the state of Baden-Wurttemberg has anticipated set of laws that necessitate citizenship applicants from the member states of the Organization of the Islamic Conference to answer enquiries concerning their outlook on domestic aggression and other religious subjects. A BBC assessment taken in the summer of 2004 estimated that employment applicants with Muslim names were far less probable to be called for an interview than applicants whose names did not appear to be Muslim. There have been efforts in opposition to supposed Islamophobe by several organizations in various countries through out the globe. In 2006 the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) was set up as an observatory body on Islamophobe. This will keep an eye on and document activities professed as Islamophobic around the planet. Throughout the attainment talks on the subject of Turkey’s probable entry to the EU, then Prime Minister of Holland, Jan Peter Balkenende, made it clear that Islamophobe must not have an effect on the possibility of Turkey’s access to the European Union. 50,000 people signed an appeal urging French President Jacques Chirac to deem Islamophobe as a new form of racism, punishable by decree. In the UK several methods directed towards limiting Islamophobe have been set up. In Tower Hamlets, a heavily populated area in London, a misdemeanour reporting system called â€Å"Islamophobe† has been set up which police expect will increase consciousness of Islamophobe and facilitate them to recognize the extent of the dilemma. The British National Union of Teachers (NUT) has issued guidelines to teachers and recommending them to Challenge Islamophobe, as they have a fundamental character to play in helping to dismiss myths about Muslim communities. In 2006 the Catholic Mission Austria and the Islamic Denomination Austria formed a platform called Christians and Muslims, which endeavours against stereotypes and antagonism and intends to augment lenience and admiration. In 1991 the Islamic Culture Foundation (FUNCI) prepared, in association with UNESCO and the Institut du Monde Arabe of Paris, a worldwide symposium concerning the involvement of Islamic Civilization in European Culture. The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan issued a call in 1999 to world influential to fight Islamophobe. The Muslim Council of Britain (MCB) and the Trades Union Congress (TUC) organized a colloquium on how to fight Islamophobe. History helps out us to identify ourselves, recognize who we are and be acquainted with the origin where we come from. We over and over again shrink back from hearing about our chronological times of yore for the reason that so much of it is excruciating. Islamophobe is a dejected perception that perplexes disapproval of Islam as a religion and stigmatization of those who have faith in it. Islamophobe, a myth or a kind of racism, obfuscates bias in opposition to Muslims with disparagement of Islam and that it is used to quieten detractors and Muslim reformers. But the best and fast method of assimilation into the world mainstream is economy and if the Islamic institutions are able to indulge itself in the main stream of the global economy then the possibility becomes quite high that these unwanted trends would end. Thus it is important for Establishing Islamic Fund to issue Islamic Bonds for Infrastructure Projects. But why Infrastructure Projects? The answer is simple. Once the finance runs into the parameters of infrastructure the entire influence becomes relevant to overall development as it is seen in the case of Dubai. According to a report from the Washington Times (2006), Dubai’s economy grew at around 16 per cent in the year 2005. Dubai Department of Economic Development estimated that the economy is worth $ 37 billion. The growth rate of the emirate had beaten the growth rate of China which is 8. 5 per cent. Mohammed Ali Alabhar had stated in the Washington Times The dominating industry in the emirate is the Petroleum. The wealth gained from the industry is invested in capital improvements and social services in the whole seven emirates. Production of Petroleum is concentrated in Abu Dhabi and Dubai. The Industrial Development is associated with the petroleum gains and is limited by the trained manpower that the country has and the raw materials. The GDP (Gross Domestic Product) of the UAE grew by 5. 7% in 2004 having a value of $ 63. 67 Billion. The oil industry had contributed 38 percent up from 34 percent in the year 2002. Other areas that Dubai is concentrated on are the tourism and its real estate properties. Mohammed Ali Alabbar, the director of the Department of Economic Development (DED), stated that the economy of Dubai will be sustained over the long term. He further noted that as compared to the $17 billion value in the year the 2000, the accumulated growth in the last decade is among the highest rate of growth in the world. Alabbar associated this economic growth to the diversification policy of the emirate. The establishment of transparent policies that had supported and encouraged private enterprises has given the economy further confidence. The government initiatives had also enabled a continuous inflow of foreign capital, it is expected that this inflow would be maintained. Since Dubai is located in between Africa and the Middle East and also between the Far East and Europe, it had created a gateway for the 1. 5 Million consumers in the countries surrounding the Red sea and the Gulf. Its infrastructure had become an important factor in the global transport and distribution system. The emirate has 170 shipping lines inside its emirates and more than 86 airlines offers links to over 100 cities worldwide. This shows a strong shipping and transporting sector in the emirate. The sector is mostly composed of leading regional and international freight forwarders, insurers and shipping agents. The emirate also boasts its rapidly developing high quality manufacturing sector and a prosperous domestic market. All its infrastructures and services can match with the international standards. Thus like Dubai the entire Islamic world can emerge from alleged fundamentalist mode with Establishment of Islamic Fund to issue Islamic Bonds for Infrastructure Projects.

Foundation and Empire 6. The Favorite

The tiny ships had appeared out of the vacant depths and darted into the midst of the Armada. Without a shot or a burst of energy, they weaved through the ship-swollen area, then blasted on and out, while the Imperial wagons turned after them like lumbering beasts. There were two noiseless flares that pinpointed space as two of the tiny gnats shriveled in atomic disintegration, and the rest were gone. The great ships searched, then returned to their original task, and world by world, the great web of the Enclosure continued. Brodrig's uniform was stately; carefully tailored and as carefully worn. His walk through the gardens of the obscure planet Wanda, now temporary Imperial headquarters, was leisurely; his expression was somber. Bel Riose walked with him, his field uniform open at the collar, and doleful in its monotonous gray-black. Riose indicated the smooth black bench under the fragrant tree-fern whose large spatulate leaves lifted flatly against the white sun. â€Å"See that, sir. It is a relic of the Imperium. The ornamented benches, built for lovers, linger on, fresh and useful, while the factories and the palaces collapse into unremembered ruin.† He seated himself, while Cleon II's Privy Secretary stood erect before him and clipped the leaves above neatly with precise swings of his ivory staff. Riose crossed his legs and offered a cigarette to the other. He fingered one himself as he spoke, â€Å"It is what one would expect from the enlightened wisdom of His Imperial Majesty to send so competent an observer as yourself. It relieves any anxiety I might have felt that the press of more important and more immediate business might perhaps force into the shadows a small campaign on the Periphery.† â€Å"The eyes of the Emperor are everywhere,† said Brodrig, mechanically. â€Å"We do not underestimate the importance of the campaign; yet still it would seem that too great an emphasis is being placed upon its difficulty. Surely their little ships are no such barrier that we must move through the intricate preliminary maneuver of an Enclosure.† Riose flushed, but he maintained his equilibrium. â€Å"I can not risk the lives of my men, who are few enough, or the destruction of my ships which are irreplaceable, by a too-rash attack. The establishment of an Enclosure will quarter my casualties in the ultimate attack, howsoever difficult it be. The military reasons for that I took the liberty to explain yesterday.† â€Å"Well, well, I am not a military man. In this case, you assure me that what seems patently and obviously right is, in reality, wrong. We will allow that. Yet your caution shoots far beyond that. In your second communication, you requested reinforcements. And these, against an enemy poor, small, and barbarous, with whom you have had not one' skirmish at the time. To desire more forces under the circumstances would savor almost of incapacity or worse, had not your earlier career given sufficient proof of your boldness and imagination.† â€Å"I thank you,† said the general, coldly, â€Å"but I would remind you that there is a difference between boldness and blindness. There is a place for a decisive gamble when you know your enemy and can calculate the risks at least roughly; but to move at all against an unknown enemy is boldness in itself. You might as well ask why the same man sprints safely across an obstacle course in the day, and falls over the furniture in his room at night.† Brodrig swept away the other's words with a neat flirt of the fingers. â€Å"Dramatic, but not satisfactory. You have been to this barbarian world yourself. You have in addition this enemy prisoner you coddle, this trader. Between yourself and the prisoner you are not in a night fog.† â€Å"No? I pray you to remember that a world which has developed in isolation for two centuries can not be interpreted to the point of intelligent attack by a month's visit. I am a soldier, not a cleft-chinned, barrel-chested hero of a subetheric trimensional thriller. Nor can a single prisoner, and one who is an obscure member of an economic group which has no close connection with the enemy world introduce me to all the inner secrets of enemy strategy.† â€Å"You have questioned him?† â€Å"I have.† â€Å"Well?† â€Å"It has been useful, but not vitally so. His ship is tiny, of no account. He sells little toys which are amusing if nothing else. I have a few of the cleverest which I intend sending to the Emperor as curiosities. Naturally, there is a good deal about the ship and its workings which I do not understand, but then I am not a tech-man.† â€Å"But you have among you those who are,† pointed out Brodrig. â€Å"I, too, am aware of that,† replied the general in faintly caustic tones. â€Å"But the fools have far to go before they could meet my needs. I have already sent for clever men who can understand the workings of the odd nuclear field-circuits the ship contains. I have received no answer.† â€Å"Men of that type can not be spared, general. Surely, there must be one man of your vast province who understands nucleics.† â€Å"Were there such a one, I would have him heal the limping, invalid motors that power two of my small fleet of ships. Two ships of my meager ten that can not fight a major battle for lack of sufficient power supply. One fifth of my force condemned to the carrion activity of consolidating positions behind the lines.† The secretary's fingers fluttered impatiently. â€Å"Your position is not unique in that respect, general. The Emperor has similar troubles.† The general threw away his shredded, never-lit cigarette, lit another, and shrugged. â€Å"Well, it is beside the immediate point, this lack of first-class tech-men. Except that I might have made more progress with my prisoner were my Psychic Probe in proper order.† The secretary's eyebrows lifted. â€Å"You have a Probe?† â€Å"An old one. A superannuated one which fails me the one time I needed it. I set it up during the prisoner's sleep, and received nothing. So much for the Probe. I have tried it on my own men and the reaction is quite proper, but again there is not one among my staff of tech-men who can tell me why it fails upon the prisoner. Ducem Barr, who is a theoretician of parts, though no mechanic, says the psychic structure of the prisoner may be unaffected by the Probe since from childhood he has been subjected to alien environments and neural stimuli. I don't know. But he may yet be useful. I save him in that hope.† Brodrig leaned on his staff. A shall see if a specialist is available in the capital. In the meanwhile, what of this other man you just mentioned, this Siwennian? You keep too many enemies in your good graces.† â€Å"He knows the enemy. He, too, I keep for future reference and the help he may afford me.† â€Å"But he is a Siwennian and the son of a proscribed rebel.† â€Å"He is old and powerless, and his family acts as hostage.† â€Å"I see. Yet I think that I should speak to this trader, myself.† â€Å"Certainly.† â€Å"Alone,† the secretary added coldly, making his point. â€Å"Certainly,† repeated Riose, blandly. â€Å"As a loyal subject of the Emperor, I accept his personal representative as my superior. However, since the trader is at the permanent base, you will have to leave the front areas at an interesting moment.† â€Å"Yes? Interesting in what way?† â€Å"Interesting in that the Enclosure is complete today. Interesting in that within the week, the Twentieth Fleet of the Border advances inward towards the core of resistance.† Riose smiled and turned away. In a vague way, Brodrig felt punctured.